Risk Management Program

-Identify Hazards- That may come about during a mission

-Determine risk- Of each hazard that may be encountered

-Interpret risk- Balance risk with personal and economic casualty

-Create control measures- To eliminate unnecessary risk

-Enforce risk controls- Establishing written policies, signs, and train personnel

-Evaluate and review- The effectiveness and lessons learned

How Safety is Measured in Current Data Systems

According to Alexander and Rodrigues (2004), the NTSB measures aviation safety in commercial passenger transportation in the following methods:

ACCIDENTS - an occurrence associated with the operation of an aircraft that takes place between the time any person boards the aircraft with the intention of flight and the time all such persons have disembarked, and in which any person (occupant or nonoccupant) suffers a fatal or serious injury or the aircraft receives substantial damage.

FATAL INJURY - any injury that results in death within 30 days of the accident.

SERIOUS INJURY - any injury that requires hospitalization for more than 48 hrs, results in bone fracture, or involves internal organs or burns.

SUBSTANTIAL DAMAGE - damage or failure that adversely affects the structural strength, performance, or flight characteristics of the aircraft and that would normally require major repiar or replacement of the affected component

INCIDENT - an occurrence other than an accident associated with the operation of an aircraft that affects or could affect the safety of operations

MAJOR ACCIDENT - an accident in which a Part 121 aircraft was destroyed, or there were multiple fatalities, or there was 1 fatality and a Part 121 aircraft was substantially damaged.

SERIOUS ACCIDENT - an accident in which there was 1 fatality without substantial damage to a Part 121 aircraft, or there was at least 1 serious injurt and a Part 121 aircraft was substantially damaged.

INJURY - a nonfatal accident with at least 1 serious injury without substantial damage to a Part 121 aircraft

DAMAGE - an accident in which no person was killed or seriously injured, but in which any aircraft was substantially damaged.

The FAA has three organizations that collect and maintain safety-related data. They are the Associate Administrator for Aviation Standards, the Associate Administrator for Air Traffic, and the Office of Aviation Safety.

Associate Administrator for Aviation Standards is a group of offices that work together to, "collect and review large quantities of data, as well as certificate aircraft, aircrew, and airlines; oversee and enforce FAR; and investigate aircraft accidents and incidents" (Alexander &Rodrigues, 2004, p. 78). There are four database systems that are used to maintain the information:

FAA Accident Incident Data System (AIDS) - is a database that collects records from 1978 to the present and holds approximately 10,000 reports

Per www.FAA.gov, the FAA Accident/Incident Data System (AIDS) database can be used to:
- browse FAA's aviation incident information
- count aircraft involved in FAA's aviation incidents
- select FAA's incident reports based on:
- user supplied words or phrases
- user selected criteria, including:report numbers, date
range, state, aircraft registration number, aircraft make and model #, operator/airline (Part 121 only), type of operation, and airport identification

Enforcement Information System (EIS) is the database where all documentation for any enforcement case is kept regarding airlines, pilots, and mechanics
- data can be viewed as far back as 1963, but only on cases that are in closed status
- violation categories include: maintenance, hazardous materials, security, medical, drug testing, flight operations, aircraft alterations, training and near mid-air collisions

Service Difficulty Reporting System is the database where records of component and mechanical reliability are stored
- contains records for 10+ years
- most useful for detecting short term safety problems
- is required in the Part 121 and 135 sectors, but is becoming popular for those is general aviation to get a better history of service and issues

Air Operator Data System provides information regarding certain air carrier operating practices
- allows for a look at aviation practices within individual carriers or a complete picture of the industry
- there is no requirement for air carriers to report information to the FAA

Aviation Analysis System is an array of databases that fall into four categories: airworthiness data, regulatory data, operational data, and organizational information

Alexander and Rodrigues (2004) states:

Airwothiness data are mainly historical information on aircraft, such as mandatory modifications specified by the FAA

Regulatory data consist of background information, such as Notices of Proposed Rulemaking, legal opinions, and previous regulations

Operational data consist of track aircrew, aircraft, and operators along with accidents, incidents, mechanical reliability reports, and enforcement actions

Organizational data include the work management subsystems to monitor Aviation Standards tasks, such as airline inspections

Associate Administrator for Air Traffic is responsible for the management of information including: air traffic levels, national airspace system status, system errors, controller errors, etc...

Near Midair Collisions System Database (NMACS) is an incident that occurs when aircraft are less than 500 feet from eachother or when a collision hazard is reported
- all reports are reviewed with the FAA and ATCs.
- data obtained from the reports are used to develop programs, policies, and procedures to reduce the chance of furture occurances
- reporting is voluntary and can be subjective

Air Traffic Activity Database is a measure of daily activity, such as departures, that is measure by ATC facilities
- this database is used to show growth of hubs
- it also measures aircraft that are handled within a radar space to measure traffic trends

Office of Aviation Safety conducts accident investigations, safety analyses, and special programs. This office operates databases listed below.

Near-Midair Collision Database- FAA learns of these incidents via ATC, passengers, and observers from the ground
- Database includes information from 1980 to the present

Operational Error Database collects data of operational deviations and errors attributed to the ATC system
- errors are filed within 48hrs of the event
- operational deviations (when an aircraft passes too close to a restricted area) and errors (when an aircraft come too close to eachother) are filed within this database

Pilot Deviation Database- first started publishing pilot deviations in 1987, but information has been stored back to 1985
- this database is similar to Operational Error Database, but this one is for pilots

NTSB Accident/Incident Reporting System
- records kept back to 1967 or civil aviation accidents in the US
- accidents involving the military and public-use aircraft are not investigated
- reports information on crashes and offers recommendations to the FAA

Bureau of Transportation Statistics- the airlines are required by law to provide financial data, activity, etc...to the BTS which are used to provide information and performance to the flying public
- measures include: departures, flight hours, and miles performed in 5 calendar years by an airline
- data is also used for accident/incident rates within the industry
- data only applies to aircraft with 30 seats or more

NASA Aviation Safety Reporting System
- funded mainly by the FAA and maintained by Battelle, but administered by NASA
- established in 1975 as a neutral party to the FAA
- reporters are not identified in the cases, which encourages ultimate honesty of the situation

Automatic Recording Systems
- includes flight data recorder (FDR) and cockpit voice recorder (CVR)
- data can be used to detect impending failures and the adequacy of component life or overhaul schedules
- information is used primarily for accident purposes

All data systems have been put in place because of a need to improve safety in one way or another. The main objective is to attempt to learn from the past and try not to make the same mistakes twice. It is also important to be able to spot trends to prevent an incident or an accident before it happens. These databases are constantly being updated with information and new methods for procuring data and information to increase the safety for all aspects of the industry.

References:

http://www.asias.faa.gov/portal/page/portal/ASIAS_PAGES/LEARN_ABOUTS/AIDS_LA.html

Wells, Alexander T. & Rodrigues, Clarence C. (2004). Commercial Aviation Safety. New York: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Ground Operation Safety

Aviation safety is of utmost importance for the aircraft, passengers, and crews that fly, travel, and work in close proximity to potentially dangerous situations daily. There are numerous hazards within operational safety that include: airport terminal buildings, hangars and maintenance shops, ramp operations, specialized services (aviation fuel handling, aircraft rescue and fire fighting (ARFF), and deicing), and runway incursions. Wells & Rodrigues (2004) state that a runway incursion is any occurrence at an airport involving an aircraft, vehicle, person, or object on the ground that creates a collision hazard or results in a loss of separation with an aircraft that is taking off, intending to take off, landing or intending to land. Technology has become an integral part of preventing runway incursions by allowing the human senses and skills to be heightened and assisted to overcome personal limitations.

Technology that has been integrated into airports includes ADSE, LOT, AMASS, PRM, GSTRS, MITRE-CAASD, and RWSL.

Airport surface detection equipment (ASDE):
(sample screen using ASDE system on right)

- analog radar that monitors aircraft and other surface vehicles on the runway
- allows ATC to determine if a runway is clear and safe for departing and
arriving aircraft
- gives multilateral, seamless coverage so there are no coverage gaps within
scanned area

Loops technology (LOT):
- lower cost alternative to the ASDE-X system
- used in smaller airports where the coverage capability of the ASDE-X system
is not necessary

Airport movement area safety system (AMASS):- add on software for the ASDE system
- provides audible and visual alerts of hazards
- increases the safety of movement on the runway

Precision runway monitoring (PRM):
- non rotating circular phased array antenna
- allows ATC to monitor aircraft in present time and give
proper direction to aircraft so ample separation can be maintained

Orincon Corp’s ground safety tracking and reporting system (GSTRS):
- more cost effective than existing FAA ground tracking radar
- effectiveness is weather independent
- enables ATC to monitor and direct ground traffic, both aircraft and vehicle, where normal ground surveillance is not as effective

Three-dimensional runway surface markings (MITRE-CAASD):- innovative images painted on the runway to alert pilots and vehicle operators to see critical markings better
- these images delineate areas where operators need permission before they cross (example pictured below)

Runway status lights (RWSL):- radar based system that offers pilots a visual advisory of runway status via surface lights
- runway lights will show red if a runway is unsafe to enter or cross
- pilots must wait for approval from ATC before proceeding

Airports are an increasingly busy and chaotic area, so the invention of new safety technology is vital for the safety of all. Most of the technology listed above is an added reference for the ATCs, but additional visual cues are given to pilots for immediate visual recognition. Technology is constantly being improved upon and efforts to keep the aviation industry safe are the primary focus for all.

Human Error and Aircraft Accidents

Human error can be described in aviation as the mainspring or the contributing factor for accidents within the industry. It is an inevitable, but expected occurance because no human performs perfectly in all situations. Airline and regulatory agencies are evaluating the three causal factors of hardware, task, and environmental in an attempt to deter and prevent any forseeable disasters.

"Hardware factors include the design of equipment, displays, controls, software, and the interface with humans in the system” (Wells & Rodrigues, 2003, p. 162). Cockpit standardization is one tool used by airlines to allow pilots to have familiarity with the displays, radios, navigation equipment, etc…The most popular form is called “within-fleets” standardization where, for example, all DC-9s or B727s will all have a uniform interior rather than the equipment being in different locations dependent on the carrier who owned it. Warning and alert systems, such as the GPWS or the “insufficient fuel” message, are another feature that gives a pilot the added advantage to be made aware of or prevent a situation.

“Task factors include the nature of the task being performed, the workload (work intensity, multitaking, and/or time contraints), and level of training” (Wells & Rodrigues, 2003, p. 162). With the rise of deregulation of the industry and the invention of the hub spoke system, added pressures and responsibility were placed on pilots. Modernized and more complex aircraft were being built and during this time, the automated cockpit was being evolved to allow pilots to multitask with greater ease. Pilot training has also played an important role in the attempt to reduce human error. The number of flight hours a pilot has, the familiarity with certain aircraft, experience in different terrain (mountains, ocean, desert), etc…all play a role in overall experience.

“Environmental factors include noise, temperature, humidity, partial pressure of oxygen, vibration, and motion/acceleration” (Wells & Rodrigues, 2003, p. 162). The world around us is constantly influencing our bodies, whether we can control it or not. Temperature is important because when it is too hot in a room, concentration can decrease and judgment may not be as crisp. The same occurs with distracting noises, lights, etc…which can cause sensory overload because of excessive stimuli. It is important for these external situations to be minimized and also to be managed by the one subjected to the environment so that optimal performance can be achieved.

Hardware, task, and environmental factors all play a causal role in accidents due to human error. They can be the independent cause or multiple factors can intermingle for the final result. While no human can be expected to perform perfectly at all times, the airline industry is in constant motion to prevent accidents due to human error.

Reference: Wells, Alexander T. & Rodrigues, Clarence C. (2004). Commercial Aviation Safety. New York: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

OSHA and EPA Regulations and Aviation Ground Operations

The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) was formed in 1970 to protect workers from hazardous situations. This act was signed into law to ensure that workers have a safe and healthy environment to perform their duties. OSHA covers all workers and employers in the United States, except for those already covered by federal statues. This includes the aviation ground operations such as ground, ramp, and airport operations, but does not include operations inside the aircraft.

Chronology of Major OSHA Standards Affecting Aviation Operations, per (Wells & Rodrigues, 2004):

-1971, “Comprehensive standards were first adopted to provide a baseline for safety and health protection in occupational environments…Sample aviation operations that are regulated include aircraft manufacturing and assembly, hangar and other maintenance shop operations, painting and stripping, ramp and flight line operations, baggage handling, cleaning crew activities, and airport operations” (p. 39).

-1978, the “Lead Standard” was established to protect about 835,000 workers from the hazardous effects of exposure to this substance. This reduced the risk of exposure by 75%.

-1980, OSHA gained permission to access employee health records and toxic exposure records and the “Fire Protection Standard” was expanded in regard to extinguishing major workplace fires.

- 1981, “Electrical Standards” were updated for workplaces that include aviation hangars, assembly, and maintenance so that they were easier to comply with the rules.

- 1983, “Hazard Communication Standard” was passed to inform employees of possible toxic materials that are being handled. “Aviation applications would include aircraft manufacturing and assembly jobs, cleaning crew tasks, and hangar and other maintenance shop activities” (p.20).

-1989, “Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response Standard” (HAZWOPER) was created to protect people from hazardous spill or sites. Aviation examples include, “ aircraft refueling, battery maintenance and disposal, deicing operations, and manufacturing process discharges” (p.20).

- 1991, “Bloodborne Pathogens Standard” was introduced to protect aviation employees from exposure to AIDS, hepatitis B, and other infectious diseases.

- 2000, “Ergonomics Program Standard” was enacted in an attempt to prevent musculoskeletal injuries that include injuries from repetitive motion, unusual positions, etc…

According to Alexander and Rodrigues (2004), “the EPA was established to enable coordinated and effective government action on the behalf of the environment. The agency strives to abate and control pollution systematically by integrating a variety of research, monitoring, standard-setting and enforcement activities. The EPA also reinforces efforts among other federal agencies with respect to the impact of their operations on the environment”.

Chronology of Major Environmental Laws Affecting Aviation Operations per Alexander and Rodrigues (2004):

- National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) was the first law enacted specifically for protecting the environment. “The Act requires Environmental Assessments (EAs) and Environmental Impact Statements (EISs) on the impact of all major undertakings and alternative courses of action on the environment” (p.13).

- Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) gave the EPA the power to control hazardous material in all stages of use. This impacts the aviation industry in the following ways stated by Alexander & Rodrigues (p.14, 15):

-painting, degreasing, and cleaning of aircraft generate paint wastes, phenols, organic solvents, acids, and alkalis
-plating, stripping, rust prevention, and stain removal generate cyanides, chromium, and other toxic metals
-spills and leaks from fuel systems and storage tanks generate fuels, oils, and grease
-spent or leaking batteries from aircraft, air traffic control tower backup, and other power supply sources generate toxic and reactive wastes
-miscellaneous wastes include glycol used for deicing and other detergents

-Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) was established in 1976 so the EPA could monitor/control chemicals to protect the environment and the people who handle them. “Aircraft manufacturing and assembly processes, discharges, and effluents are controlled by this regualtion” (Alexander & Rodrigues, p.15).

- Emergency Planning and Community Right-To-Know Act (EPCRA) was passed in 1986 so communities can better protect their people from chemical hazards. All states are required to have a State Emergency Response Commission, which is further broken down into localities and the respective emergency responders (firefighters, emergency responders, etc…). Aircraft rescue and fire fighting (ARFF) and fires not related to aircraft are covered under this Act.

Economic accomplishments of any government agency are, a lot of the time, subjective to whoever is asked. The government does not have a spotless track record for being fiscally responsible or efficient with anything they do. The EPA and OSHA have both increased the number of federal jobs available because more people are needed to ensure that employers are compliant with the rules and regulations imposed by both agencies. This is the only economic accomplishment I can think of that a government agency can bestow upon our country.

Reference: Wells, Alexander T. & Rodrigues, Clarence C. (2004). Commercial Aviation Safety. New York: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Evolution of Federal aviation safety laws and their effectiveness

On December 17th 1903 Orville and Wilbur Wright made the first sustained flight from a plane the brothers built. The flight lasted only 12 seconds, where as it opened the door to the development of the first practical airplane in 1905 and a world wide endeavor to build better planes.

Air transportation was not regulated until the Air Commerce Act of 1926. The Secretary of Commerce established the system to control and regulate air commerce. Some people believed the aircraft could not reach its full economic means without federal action to improve and maintain safety standards; in turn, the Air Commerce Act was passed in 1926. A few years later, in 1934, the Department of Commerce renamed the Aeronautics Branch the Bureau of Air Commerce.

The Bureau of Air Commerce had a small group of airlines to establish the first air traffic control centers to provide en route air traffic control and in 1936 the Bureau took over these centers.

The safety of the Airlines is astonishingly safer that any other mode of transportation. The FAA is effective in improving the safety of flight by developing and implementing new policies and guidelines. Continued operational safety and manufacturing of products will continue to become safer as technology expands and as the airline industry broadens.